• Skip to primary navigation
  • Skip to main content
  • Skip to footer
  • Home
  • About
    • Editorial Staff
      • Bryan Strawser, Editor in Chief, Strife
      • Dr Anna B. Plunkett, Founder, Women in Writing
      • Strife Journal Editors
      • Strife Blog Editors
      • Strife Communications Team
      • Senior Editors
      • Series Editors
      • Copy Editors
      • Strife Writing Fellows
      • Commissioning Editors
      • War Studies @ 60 Project Team
      • Web Team
    • Publication Ethics
    • Open Access Statement
  • Archive
  • Series
  • Strife Journal
  • Strife Policy Papers
    • Strife Policy Papers: Submission Guidelines
    • Vol 1, Issue 1 (June 2022): Perils in Plain Sight
  • Contact us
  • Submit to Strife!

Strife

The Academic Blog of the Department of War Studies, King's College London

  • Announcements
  • Articles
  • Book Reviews
  • Call for Papers
  • Features
  • Interviews
  • Strife Policy Papers
    • Strife Policy Papers: Submission Guidelines
    • Vol 1, Issue 1 (June 2022): Perils in Plain Sight
You are here: Home / Archives for Great War

Great War

Forgotten voices from the Great War: the Chinese Labour Corps

August 12, 2014 by Strife Staff

By Alex Calvo:

CLC graves at Efford Cemetery (Plymouth)
View of some Chinese Labour Corps graves at Efford cemetery (Plymouth)

China and the Great War are two terms not often found in the same sentence, but the 100th Anniversary of the First World War is a great opportunity to rediscover the story of the thousands of Chinese labourers who helped grease the Allied machinery of war, making a vital contribution to ultimate victory. Some never made it back home.

 Introduction: Asia and the Great War

The 100th anniversary of the Great War is prompting renewed interest in the conflict and a major drive by myriad institutions and individuals to inform the public and make sure that the sacrifices made one century ago are never forgotten. While the main theatres of the war may have been in Europe, there is a reason why it is also called the First World War, since its nature and scope were truly global. This includes Asia, which may have seen limited combat operations (other than in South-Western Asia and parts of the Middle East) but where a number of countries made key contributions to the Allied cause. While such contributions were stressed by contemporary media and are well documented, the passage of time means that much of the public is no longer aware of them. The first centenary of the war is, however, prompting many public and private organizations in countries like Japan, India, and China, as well as communities from those nations, to make a renewed effort to make sure that their contribution is duly recognized, both at home and abroad, and in particular among their war-time allies.

China at the outset of the War: State-Building, Limited Sovereignty, and Collective Security

The outbreak of the Great War caught China in the middle of a giant, yet incomplete transformation from empire to republic, an exercise in nation building that would take decades to complete and see myriad wars and turmoil, amid fragmentation and widespread human suffering. The Guomindang revolutionaries had been forced to cede the presidency to Yuan Shikai, and warlords ruled much of the country, with significant foreign influence. In 1916 Duan Qirui, a graduate of the Beiyang Military Academy who had furthered his studies in Germany, became prime minister following Yuan’s death. One of the most pressing questions as he assumed his position was whether to join the Great War. Among the factors at play was the possibility of recovering the German-held concessions in Shandong Province. Pressure also came from the United States, which at that time was moving towards joining the war as well, plus the Japanese, who had decided on a policy of loans and other financial incentives in exchange for recognition of their position in Northern China. In March 1917, Duan convinced Parliament to break diplomatic relations with Germany and, following a struggle over who had the constitutional power to issue it, a declaration of war by the cabinet was made in August.

Thus, although her own nation building process was far from complete, China’s leaders decided to join a conflict which, while global in nature, had its origin and main focus thousands of miles away. Ideally, being on the winning side should have helped China consolidate and increase her national stature, but as we shall see later things turned out quite differently. What was clear in 1916 was that whereas China had little, if any, expeditionary military capabilities to offer the Allies, she had something they desperately needed: manpower. The concept was simple: import Chinese labour, thus freeing more British and French young men for combat duties.

 The Chinese Labour Corps: China’s foremost contribution to the war effort

Logistics are often forgotten, or at least not granted a degree of attention commensurate with their true importance, in many works of military history. In the case of the Western Front in the Great War, the distances involved were not huge, in particular if compared with some later theatres in the Second World War, but the industrial nature of the fighting, the dual demands of artillery and fortification, and the sheer number of troops involved, meant a strong and growing need for labour behind the trenches. Although some machinery and vehicles were available, building and repairing railways and roads, moving supplies, mail, troops, and the injured, laying down and maintaining telephone networks, plus constructing all sorts of military facilities, were mainly tasks undertaken with a mixture of human and animal labour. At first, arrangements were often ad-hoc, but the scale of the fighting, the inadequacy of some of the earlier methods, and the realization that this would be no short conflict, soon gave way to a more systematic approach. Many labour units were created, with, for example, the Royal Engineers setting up 11 labour battalions, and in January 1917 the British Labour Corps was born. By the time of the armistice, the Corps had grown to almost 400,000. Staffed by officers not medically fit for front-line duties (who often returned wounded), it regularly operated within range of enemy fire, and some of its units were employed as emergency infantry during the Spring 1918 German offensives.

The Allies quickly realized that their manpower pool was simply not large enough to feed this ever-growing need for construction and logistics labour. France was the first to tap into China’s first and foremost resource: her huge labour force. Great Britain followed suit, with both countries already in negotiations with China in the summer of 1916. Gradually, efforts were introduced to employ labour, always in great demand, in more productive manners. In January-February 1918 Sir Edward E. Pearson travelled to France and wrote a ‘Report on Labour Organisation in France’ to the (British National Archives CAB/24/58), where he noted, in the section devoted to Chinese workers, ‘Generally I heard very good accounts of the work these companies were doing. It would appear, however, that there is a tendency to underrate the capabilities of these men; it must not be forgotten that they are “A” men, specially selected, of excellent physique, and who at home are accustomed to do a hard day’s work. If properly supervised and handled, their output should be materially increased’. Sir Pearson concluded that the Chinese Labour Corps ‘is probably the best Labour in France’ It is clear that Chinese workers played a crucial role in sustaining the Allied armies in the field. Although precise numbers may not be available, one source mentions that in August 1918 96,000 were enrolled in the British Labour Corps, with a further 30,000 working for France.

 The Individual Experience of Chinese Workers: Tasks, Dangers, and Opportunities

Even before China formally declared war, a processing facility was set up in Shandong Province, with the purpose of screening and hiring labourers. Located near the Royal Navy’s base at Weihaiwei, it was followed by a second facility in the port of Qindao. Recruitment was not difficult, given the region’s poverty, instability and the high wages offered. These consisted of 20 Chinese dollars as a starting bonus, food and clothing, and 10 dollars per month partly payable to their families. The medical examination focused on tuberculosis, trachoma (a viral disease of the eye, then prevalent in Shandong), and venereal diseases. Some 100,000 were selected and issued a serial number in a dog tag around their wrists, and sprayed prior
to embarkation. Many still had a pigtail and were urged to cut it.

Travel to Europe was not without its dangers. Already in 1916 a ship carrying Chinese workers to France had been sunk by a German submarine in the Mediterranean, with the loss of 543, prompting the use of an alternative trans-Pacific route across Canada by train. On arrival, although their contracts said they would not be deployed in or near the front, they often found themselves under enemy fire or dealing with other dangers, such as unexploded ammunitions. Illness was an additional hazard, together with the harsh climate and unfamiliar food. In addition to those lost at sea, more than 2,000 died. Their tombstones can be found in France, Flanders, and England, some in special cemeteries.

A usual schedule was 10 working hours per day, seven days per week. Although under military discipline and severe restrictions on their movement, to some extent resulting in segregation, authorities made an effort to accommodate some of their customs, for instance the free days they would normally receive during traditional Chinese festivals. An effort was made to facilitate postal communication with their families, despite censorship and the fact many were illiterate. The resulting letters (up to 50,000 per month) are a very useful source to learn about their roles, thoughts, and living conditions. The YMCA played a key role in their welfare, organizing recreational activities and literacy classes. Hong Kong and US-educated James Yen created a 1,000-character vocabulary and the Chinese Workers’ Weekly, also writing many letters for illiterate labourers.

Their work was varied and ranged from unloading military supplies and handling ammunitions to building barracks, digging trenches and constructing fortifications. While labouring long hours in uncomfortable and often hazardous jobs, their stay in Europe was for many the first opportunity they had of experiencing life not only outside China, but also beyond their village or province. As often happens, contact with a different reality may have prompted more than a few to question their country’s place in the world and to wonder how it could be changed. China would emerge out of the war with a deep sense of frustration, not having secured any goal at Versailles, and a very interesting question is to what extent, if any, members of the Chinese Labour Corps may have developed a stronger sense of national identity out of their war experience. As noted by Guoqi Xu in his China and the Great War: China’s Pursuit of a New National Identity and Internationalization, ‘these issues have yet to be explored’, including ‘how did the war experience help shape China’s national identity and push to internationalization?’ (page 4).

 

____________________

Alex Calvo is a guest Professor at Nagoya University, interested in military history, international law, geopolitics, and defence and security policy. You can follow him on Twitter @Alex__Calvo

Filed Under: Blog Article Tagged With: Chinese Labour Corps, Great War, remembrance

Remembering conflict: the two Great Wars

August 1, 2014 by Strife Staff

By Louis Mignot:

OLYMPUS DIGITAL CAMERA

War as a phenomenon hangs in the public consciousness, something that has become all the more apparent as we approached the centenary commemoration of the First World War. All wars are characterised by violence and loss of life, but the First World War has come to represent the experience of soldiers worldwide. This is evinced in the poppy; the flower that grew in Flanders has now come to symbolise remembrance for soldiers who have fought in all wars. It is significant, however, that the public do not seem to commemorate conflicts from before the First World War to the same extent. For example, the Napoleonic Wars – the original ‘Great War’ – have, apart from ongoing academic interest, faded from public consciousness. The question should be asked; will the First World War’s impact on the public consciousness fade in the face of later conflicts?

‘The Great War’        

There can be no doubt that the First World War was horrific, bloody and, indeed, global in its profound impact on society. With approximately nine million deaths spread across all sides throughout the four-year conflict, there is an obvious, direct and indirect, impact on the population to this day. Many families will have distant relatives who fought, or indeed died, in the First World War. Yet, the number of deaths cannot be the only causal factor behind the conflict’s continued vivid remembrance. The Napoleonic wars were, whilst longer, exceedingly costly in terms of lives. For instance, Napoleon’s invasion of Russia in 1812, marking the end of the Napoleonic Wars proper (the bi-centenary passing in 2012), was exceedingly bloody; of the 422,000 soldiers that marched into Russia, only 10,000 returned.[i] This is a staggering loss, taking place over a very short time period: six months of combat against a spectral Russian enemy and the deadly Russian winter. The bi-centenary of the 1812 campaign was marked by receptions at the Russian Embassy to mark the ‘Patriotic War’ and by a series of scholarly articles, amongst other things. Now, whilst this is a commemoration, there is far less profundity. This is by no means unjustified: the First World War is, in chronological terms, much closer to the modern day and was, arguably, the start of a new phase of warfare; the industrial war.

The chronology of the conflict must be a factor contributing to the level of its commemoration. Yet, there is more to it than simple timing. If this were the case, then the Second World War would surely supersede it in terms of commemoration. The fact that the First World War is seen as a turning point in history, coming near the start of the 20th Century, involving millions of combatants and using new, increasingly brutal and efficient weapons marks it out in the consciousness of many people to this day. This is perfectly demonstrated by the Poppy Campaign; the campaign aims to raise money for serving soldiers, but its iconography is rooted in the First World War; this conflict has been held up as the epitome of war’s impact on society, making it the perfect symbol for an appeal for serving soldiers.

Will this trend continue?

Whilst there have been numerous conflicts since the First World War, only the Second World War seems to have gained similar levels of commemoration. There seems to be an implied ‘ranking’ of conflicts in the public consciousness; the title ‘world war’ sets up the First and Second World Wars on a par – they come to be seen as the epitome of what negative impacts war can have, and therefore something to avoid. Despite this, the Second World War has not superseded the First in terms of its impact in the public consciousness; people view the Second World War as almost a bi-product of the First. That is, students at GCSE level in the UK learn of the Treaty of Versailles, how Germany was humbled and, indeed, humiliated by its terms, leading to economic decline and the rise of Adolf Hitler. As a result, the First World War retains its mantle as the ‘first’ of the industrial, ‘new’ wars; it remains one of the turning points in history. Whilst the Second World War has its own horrors and is rightly remembered for the fight to stop them, this trend will likely continue.

Some may argue that as the last combatants of the First World War have passed on, the war will lose its continuing significance and commemoration. Yet, the First World War is rooted in our architecture; the cenotaph, the memorials at Thiepval (amongst others), school children take sobering tours of the battlefields, and learn of the horrors of the war. Moreover, films and television shows continue to be made about the conflict; classics such as ‘Paths of Glory’ and ‘Blackadder’ followed by more recent productions like ‘Joyeux Noelle’ and ‘Our World War’ keep this conflict in our minds, albeit in a simplified and somewhat detached form. As the centenary approaches, new articles will be written, new television programmes will be produced, all adding to the existing work on the subject, inciting new debate – most recently over the pre-existing view that the generals were to blame for the losses of the war. As a result, the First World War will, for a significant time to come, be remembered with the same levels of profundity as current commemorations. Whilst wars of the previous centuries may have lost some of their lingering impact, none of them rival the First World War for its continued effect on everyday life. As is clear from the centenary commemoration of the First World War, the conflict retains its profound impact on the national consciousness, and, even after those who experienced it first-hand pass on, the experience of the war will remain in the public consciousness.

 

________________

Louis Mignot is a second year undergraduate student at King’s College London reading War Studies and History. You can follow Louis Mignot on Twitter @LouisMignot.

 

NOTES
[i] Frank McLynn, Napoleon, a Biography, (London: Pimlico, 1998), p. 375.

Filed Under: Blog Article Tagged With: First World War, Great War, Memory, remembrance, WWI

Footer

Contact

The Strife Blog & Journal

King’s College London
Department of War Studies
Strand Campus
London
WC2R 2LS
United Kingdom

blog@strifeblog.org

 

Recent Posts

  • Preventing Coup d’Étas: Lessons on Coup-Proofing from Gabon
  • The Struggle for National Memory in Contemporary Nigeria
  • How UN Support for Insider Mediation Could Be a Breakthrough in the Kivu Conflict
  • Strife Series: Modern Conflict & Atrocity Prevention in Africa – Introduction
  • Strife Policy Papers: Volume 1, Issue 1 (June 2022) – Perils in Plain Sight

Tags

Afghanistan Africa Brexit China Climate Change conflict counterterrorism COVID-19 Cybersecurity Cyber Security Diplomacy Donald Trump drones Elections EU feature France India intelligence Iran Iraq ISIL ISIS Israel ma Myanmar NATO North Korea nuclear Pakistan Politics Russia security strategy Strife series Syria terrorism Turkey UK Ukraine United States us USA women Yemen

Licensed under Creative Commons (Attribution, Non-Commercial, No Derivatives) | Proudly powered by Wordpress & the Genesis Framework